Entrepreneurship in the old en new Europe

Developing a dynamic SME sector is essential for countries transforming their centrally planned economy into a market oriented one. New firm formation is the major driver of this transition. Obviously, entrepreneurial energy is a necessary condition for new firm formation. This paper uses 2004 survey data from the 25 EU member states and the US to explain country differences in entrepreneurial energy. This energy is captured as latent and actual entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurial engagement levels in the European Union

A multinomial logit model and survey data from the 25 EU member states and the US are used to establish the effect of demographic and other variables on various entrepreneurial engagement levels. These engagement levels range from 'never thought about starting a business' to 'thinking about it', 'taking steps for starting up', 'having a young business', 'having an older business' and 'no longer being an entrepreneur'. Data of the 2004 Entrepreneurship Flash Eurobarometer survey containing over 13,500 observations is used. Other than demographic variables such as gender, age, education level and whether parents are self-employed, the set of explanatory variables used includes country specific effects, measures of risk tolerance, internal and external locus of control and four perceptions of 'obstacles'.

Latent and actual entrepreneurship in Europe and the US: some recent developments

This paper uses 2004 survey data from the 15 old EU member states and the US to explain country differences in latent and actual entrepreneurship. Other than demographic variables such as gender, age and education, the set of covariates includes the perception by respondents of administrative complexities, of availability of financial support and of risk tolerance as well as country-specific effects. A comparison is made with results using a similar survey in 2000. While a majority of the surveyed population identifies lack of financial support as an obstacle to starting a new business, the role of this variable in both latent and actual entrepreneurship appears to be even more counterintuitive in 2004 than in 2000.

Controlling service work: An ambiguous accomplishment between employees, management and customers

In order to understand the control of service work, most service literature has focused on its production while treating the customer as secondary. The consumption literature emphasizes the customer’s role but lacks empirical evidence for its claims. Using an ethnographic study of an ‘exclusive’ department store, this article aims to reduce the gap between these two bodies of literature by investigating how employees, management and customers control service work. The findings suggest that the maintenance of class difference combined with competing expectations of managers, employees and customers makes the management of service work highly ambiguous and reveals a continuing instability between managerial practices of control and consumer culture

Determinants of self-employment preference and realization of women and men in Europe and the United States

Female self-employment rates are consistently lower than those of men. This untapped female potential has drawn the attention of policy makers. In the present paper the determinants of selfemployment rates of both men and women are investigated in the context of a two-equation model explaining both actual self-employment and the preference for self-employment. A systematic distinction is made between different ways in which gender can exert influence on (preference for) self-employment,including moderation, mediation and direct effects. Using Flash Eurobarometer data of about 8,000 individuals from 29 countries (including the 15 old EU member states, 10 new EU member states and the United States) probit equations are estimated explaining the (preference for) self-employment. Next to gender, explanatory variables include age, education, social capital, risk attitude, locus of control and perceptions of the entrepreneurial environment. Findings show that at least part of the explanation of the lower female self-employment rate is caused by a lower preference for women to become self-employed. We do not find evidence for a moderating effect of gender on the relationship between self-employment and the preference for self-employment, indicating that�' other things equal�' women and men who have a preference to become self-employed do not differ with respect to the impact of this preference on its materialization. Read also�the new version of this paper: R200803,��"Explaining preferences and actual involvement in self-employment: new insights into the role of gender."

Explaining Preferences and Actual Involvement in Self-Employment: New Insights into the role of Gender

This paper investigates why self-employment rates of women are consistently lower than those of men. It has three focal points: it discriminates between the preference for self-employment and actual involvement in self-employment for women and men. It uses a huge data set from about 8,000 individuals across 26 countries while probit equations are estimated explaining (the preference for) self-employment. And a systematic distinction is made between different ways in which gender can influence the preference for and actual involvement in self-employment, including moderation, mediation and direct effects. Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour we investigate effects of risk attitude,social norms, locus of control, perceptions of the entrepreneurial environment as well as that of an individual’s age and educational attainment. Findings show that the lower preference of women to become self-employed largely explains their relatively low involvement in self-employment and that – other things equal – women and men who express a preference for it, have equal chances of becoming self-employed. This paperis a new version of H200622, "Determinants of self-employment preference and realization of women and men in Europe and the United States"

Globalization, entrepreneurship and the region

The present document analyzes the linkages between globalization, entrepreneurship and the role of regions. After dealing with the meaning of globalization, the regional dimension of the response to globalization is described where downsizing, knowledge spillovers and agglomeration are the essential phenomena. Next, it is shown how these developments have led to the emergence of new entrepreneurial activities. Subsequently, more details are given on the effects of the information and communication (ICT) revolution on the organization of industry in a globalized economy. Finally, it is concluded that policies promoting both knowledge investments as well as entrepreneurship have become prominent for many regions in the most developed countries. �

Determinants of self-employment preference and realisation of women and men in Europe and the United States

This study has investigated the factors influencing the probability of women and men to be(come) self-employed. Starting from a lower self-employment preference combined with a lower self-employment prevalence rate for women, the present paper sets out to investigate the underlying mechanisms behind these gender differences, distinguishing between different ways in which gender can exert influence on selfemployment (preference). Findings show evidence of moderating and indirect effects of gender. An important finding is that the lower self-employment rate for women may largely be attributed to their lower self-employment preference. An update version of the report is published on 5 dec. 2006:�research paper H200622.�

The commitment of sport tourism to environmental sustainability : an application to the consumption of international surfing events

Esta tese focalizou-se na temática da sustentabilidade ambiental no desporto. A investigação desta relação foi esquematizada em duas etapas sequenciais. Na primeira etapa foi elaborado um estudo sistematizando o conhecimento científico recentemente publicado sobre o tema, cuja análise foi centrada no contexto do turismo desportivo. Os resultados providenciaram a identificação das lacunas de investigação, das metodologias e dos principais resultados da investigação sobre a inter-relação do turismo desportivo e da sustentabilidade ambiental. Baseada neste conhecimento, a segunda etapa foi elaborada, integrando dois estudos que aplicaram e testaram o modelo Sport Sustainability Campaign Evaluation Model (SSCEM) em eventos internacionais de surf. Os resultados da revisão sistemática da literatura (primeira etapa) apontam para a proeminência de estudos contextualizados nos eventos desportivos; focados nos praticantes desportivos; e direcionados para investigar os fatores que moldam a adoção / implementação da sustentabilidade ambiental no desporto. As conclusões sublinham a necessidade de uma maior operacionalização de estratégias e ações ambientais, incitando à promoção da atividade desportiva outdoor, e à realização de iniciativas ambientais que atendam às características influentes no comportamento ambiental do consumidor desportivo. A revisão sistemática salienta ainda a falta de estudos: (i) com os espectadores; (ii) contextualizados nos eventos de desportos de natureza; e (iii) suportados por modelos teóricos para a análise das intenções de comportamento ambientalmente sustentável. A segunda etapa desta investigação foi composta por dois estudos que testaram o Sport Sustainability Campaign Evaluation Model (SSCEM), aplicando-o aos espectadores de eventos internacionais de surf para aferir as suas intenções de Abstract in Portuguese comportamento sustentável relativamente a duas campanhas ambientais realizadas no decorrer dos eventos, através da análise das equações estruturais, com o pacote Lavaan do software R. O primeiro estudo investigou as intenções de reciclagem e reutilização de 625 espectadores de dois eventos internacionais de surf acolhidos em Portugal, o MEO Rip Curl Pro 2019 e o EDP Billabong Ericeira 2019. O estudo confirmou a influência das necessidades, pontos de ligação e constrangimentos internos nas atitudes, bem como o efeito dos comportamentos ambientais passados e constrangimentos (internos e externos) nas intenções de comportamento ambiental dos espectadores. O segundo estudo examinou a intenção de utilização do transporte sustentável de 355 espectadores do evento de surf MEO Rip Curl Pro 2019, testando o SSCEM e segmentando os espectadores com base nas referidas intenções. O estudo identificou a influência dos pontos de ligação e dos constrangimentos internos nas atitudes, bem como o efeito dos comportamentos ambientais passados, constrangimentos externos e pontos de ligação nas intenções de comportamento ambiental dos espectadores. Uma análise de clusters não-hierárquica foi ainda elaborada, da qual emergiram três segmentos de espectadores: “comprometidos”, “indecisos” e “descomprometidos”. Cinco fatores distintivos foram apurados, destacando que os “comprometidos” evidenciam uma maior necessidade estética, uma ligação mais forte à comunidade e comportamentos passados relativos ao uso de transporte sustentável em anteriores eventos de surf; os “descomprometidos” sentem-se mais constrangidos pela falta de acessibilidade e pela falta de tempo, sendo este último fator também inibidor na escolha dos “indecisos” pelo transporte sustentável. A aplicabilidade do SSCEM ao estudo das intenções de comportamento sustentável dos espectadores nos eventos de surf foi positivamente aferida por ambos os estudos, onde os constrangimentos internos e externos, os pontos de ligação e os comportamentos ambientais passados foram fatores associados à resposta dos espectadores em ambas as campanhas. As necessidades de autorrealização foram tidas como preditoras das atitudes dos espectadores face às suas intenções de reciclagem e reutilização, mas não se revelaram significativas nas intenções dos espectadores relativamente ao transporte sustentável. Os resultados desta investigação não confirmaram a influência dos valores universais sobre as atitudes, contrariando a hipótese avançada pelo modelo. Esta dissertação fornece vários contributos, nomeadamente, o aprofundamento do conhecimento científico sobre a sustentabilidade ambiental no desporto, a compreensão das intenções de comportamento ambientalmente sustentável dos espetadores dos eventos de surf, e a formulação de recomendações para que os gestores dos eventos de surf possam desenvolver estratégias ambientais mais eficazes ao combate dos problemas ambientais.This thesis focused on the theme of environmental sustainability in sport. The investigation of this relationship was outlined in two sequential stages. In the first stage, a study was carried out systematizing the scientific knowledge recently published on the subject, whose analysis was centred in the context of sport tourism. The results provided the identification of the research gaps, methodologies and main results of research on the interrelation of sport tourism and environmental sustainability. Based on this knowledge, the second stage was elaborated, integrating two studies that applied and tested the Sport Sustainability Campaign Evaluation Model (SSCEM) model in international surfing events. The results of the systematic literature review (first stage) point to the prominence of studies contextualized in sporting events; focused on sport practitioners; and aimed at investigating the factors that shape the adoption / implementation of environmental sustainability in sport. The conclusions underscore the need for greater operationalization of environmental strategies and actions, encouraging the promotion of outdoor sporting activities, and the realization of environmental initiatives that take into account the influential characteristics in the environmental behaviour of the sport consumer. The systematic review also highlights the lack of studies: (i) with spectators; (ii) contextualized in nature sports events; and (iii) supported by theoretical models for the analysis of intentions for environmentally sustainable behaviour. The second stage of this investigation was composed of two studies that tested the Sport Sustainability Campaign Evaluation Model (SSCEM), applying it to the spectators of international surfing events to infer their intentions for sustainable behaviour in relation to two environmental campaigns carried out during the events, through the analysis of structural equations, with the Lavaan software package R. The first study investigated the recycling and reuse intentions of 625 spectators from two international surf events hosted in Portugal, MEO Rip Curl Pro 2019 and EDP Billabong Ericeira 2019. The study confirmed the influence of needs, points of attachment and internal constraints on attitudes, as well as the effect of past environmental behaviours and constraints (internal and external) on spectators’ environmental behaviour intentions. The second study examined the intention of using sustainable transport for 355 spectators at the MEO Rip Curl Pro 2019 surfing event, testing SSCEM and segmenting spectators based on those intentions. The study identified the influence of points of attachment and internal constraints on attitudes, as well as the effect of past environmental behaviours, external constraints and points of attachment on spectators’ environmental behaviour intentions. A non-hierarchical cluster analysis was also carried out, from which three segments of spectators emerged: “committed”, “undecided” and “uncommitted”. Five distinctive factors were ascertained, highlighting that the “committed” show a greater aesthetic need, a stronger connection to the community and past behaviours related to the use of sustainable transport in previous surf events; “uncommitted” feel more constrained by the lack of accessibility and the lack of time, the latter being also an inhibiting factor in the choice of the “undecided” for sustainable transport. The SSCEM’s applicability to the study of spectators’ sustainable behaviour intentions in surfing events was positively assessed by both studies, where internal and external constraints, points of attachment and past environmental behaviours were factors associated with the spectators’ response in both campaigns. Self-actualization needs were predictors of spectators’ attitudes towards their recycling and reuse intentions, but were not significant in spectators’ intentions regarding sustainable transport. The results of this investigation did not confirm the influence of universal values on attitudes, contradicting the hypothesis advanced by the model. This dissertation provides several contributions, namely, the deepening of scientific knowledge about environmental sustainability in sport, the understanding of the intentions of environmentally sustainable behaviour of spectators of surf events, and the formulation of recommendations so that surf event managers can develop more effective environmental strategies to combat environmental problems

Latent and actual entrepreneurship in Europe and the US: some recent developments

This paper uses 2004 survey data from the 15 old EU member states and the US to explain country differences in latent and actual entrepreneurship. Other than demographic variables such as gender, age and education, the set of covariates includes the perception by respondents of administrative complexities, of availability of financial support and of risk tolerance as well as country-specific effects. A comparison is made with results using a similar survey in 2000. While a majority of the surveyed population identifies lack of financial support as an obstacle to starting a new business, the role of this variable in both latent and actual entrepreneurship appears to be even more counterintuitive in 2004 than in 2000: it has no impact on actual entrepreneurship and is positively related to latent entrepreneurship. Administrative complexities, also perceived as an obstacle by a large majority of the population, have the expected negative impact both for latent and actual entrepreneurship in both years. Country-specific effects are important both for latent and actual entrepreneurship and the comparison of 2000 and 2004 results suggests that, once all other factors are controlled for, an improvement in actual entrepreneurship in the EU relative to the US has taken place in the last four years. However, in terms of unweighted averages actual entrepreneurship remained about the same. Latent entrepreneurship dropped while this drop seems to have occurred evenly in the US and the EU member states